Immigrant History | Immigrant Stories | Multicultural

Between Welcome and Exclusion: Immigration Policy Across American History

January 15, 2026 by

An ocean steamer passing the Statue of Liberty: Scene on the steerage deck (1887) Library of Congress

Why Policy Matters

Immigration policy is never abstract. Laws have real consequences for real people: families separated or reunited, communities built or broken, cultures preserved or erased. Policy determines who is deemed worthy of citizenship, who is labeled “undesirable,” and whose labor is welcomed but whose presence is contested.

Looking at immigration history through policy allows us to better understand why certain waves of immigrants arrived when they did, and why others were forcibly stopped or excluded. It also highlights a central truth of American history: immigration laws often reflect the anxieties and values of their moment in time, rather than the ideals the nation claims for itself.

 

18th Century: Foundations of Citizenship and Exclusion
Immigration wave: Colonial‑Era European Migration (1600s–1700s)

Before the United States formally existed, European settlers arrived under colonial rule, laying the groundwork for what would become a nation shaped by migration. These early migrants, primarily from England, the Netherlands, Germany, and other parts of Europe, were encouraged as settlers, while Indigenous peoples were displaced and excluded from the political and legal systems being formed.

The Naturalization Act of 1790, the country’s first citizenship law, codified this exclusion by limiting naturalized citizenship to “free white persons.” This act established a racialized definition of belonging that would echo through U.S. immigration policy for more than a century.

Franquelin's map of Louisiana (1896-1901) Library of Congress

19th and Early 20th Century: Growth, Fear, and Federal Control
Immigration waves:

  • Forced Migration of Enslaved Africans (1619–1865)
  • Irish and German Immigration (1840s–1860s)
  • Chinese Immigration and Westward Urban Growth (1850s–1880s)
  • Southern and Eastern European Immigration (1880–1924)

 

The 19th century was marked by dramatic population growth, industrial expansion, and migration, both voluntary and forced. Millions of enslaved Africans were brought to North America through violence and coercion, a foundational migration that shaped the country economically and culturally, while being denied legal recognition or rights.

An enslaved family or families posed in front of wooden house, on the plantation of Dr. William F. Gaines, Hanover County, Virginia (1862) Library of Congress

Later in the century, immigrants from Ireland and Germany arrived in large numbers, with many fleeing famine, political unrest, and economic hardship. Their presence helped fuel urban growth and industrial labor, even as they faced nativist backlash. Similar tensions emerged with Chinese immigrants in the American West, whose labor was instrumental in building railroads and cities.

Federal immigration control began in earnest during this period. The Immigration Act of 1882 introduced a head tax and exclusions targeting those deemed undesirable. That same year, the Chinese Exclusion Act became the first U.S. law to ban immigration based on nationality, a stark example of how racial prejudice was written directly into law. The Geary Act of 1892 and the Immigration Act of 1891 further expanded enforcement and surveillance, requiring documentation and increasing deportation powers.

This Political cartoon by Raymond O. Evans (1916) Library of Congress

As immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe surged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, public anxiety grew. Policies increasingly sought to regulate who could enter, reflecting fears about cultural change rather than evidence of harm.

As immigration reached historic highs in the early 1900s, lawmakers responded with increasingly restrictive measures. The Immigration Act of 1907 tightened regulations, while the Immigration Act of 1917 imposed literacy tests and created the Asiatic Barred Zone, effectively banning immigration from much of Asia.

The introduction of national quotas fundamentally reshaped U.S. immigration. The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson–Reed Act) limited immigration based on national origins, favoring Northern and Western Europe while excluding others almost entirely. These laws drastically reduced immigration and froze the nation’s demographic makeup.

Mid‑Century Reform: Reordering Without Reckoning
Immigration waves:

  • The Great Migration (1916–1970)
  • Post‑1965 Immigration Reform Wave (1965–1990s)

While international immigration slowed due to restrictive quotas, internal migration reshaped the country. During “The Great Migration,” millions of Black Americans left the rural South for Northern and Western cities, seeking safety and opportunity amid pervasive segregation and racialized, state-sanctioned violence.

Displaced persons seeking to immigrate to the U.S. line the decks of the General Black as it leaves the port of Bremerhaven (1948) United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration

At the federal level, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (McCarren-Walter Act) consolidated existing laws. While it ended some outright racial exclusions, it retained the national origins quota system, reinforcing unequal access to immigration based on birthplace.

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 marked a turning point. By abolishing national origins quotas, it transformed U.S. immigration, prioritizing family reunification and employment skills. This shift led to increased immigration from Asia, Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean, reshaping the nation in profound and lasting ways.

The Refugee Act of 1980 further expanded the country’s humanitarian commitments, establishing a formal refugee admissions system aligned with international standards. Together, these reforms reflected a broader recognition that immigration strengthens families, communities, and the nation as a whole.

A life boat from the USS BLUE RIDGE (LCC 19) tows a Vietnamese fishing boat with 35 refugees (1984) National Archives

Late 20th Century to Present: Expansion and Enforcement
Immigration wave: Contemporary Global Migration (1990s–Present)

Later reforms expanded legal pathways while also increasing enforcement. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 legalized millions of undocumented immigrants, acknowledging their deep ties to U.S. communities, while penalizing employers who exploited undocumented labor.

The Immigration Act of 1990 increased overall immigration levels and created the Diversity Visa Program, opening doors for migrants from underrepresented countries. However, subsequent policies like the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 and the Homeland Security Act of 2002 emphasized enforcement, detention, and surveillance.

More recent policies, including DACA (2012), travel bans, and evolving border enforcement strategies, highlight the ongoing tension between restriction and inclusion. These measures continue to shape the lives of immigrants who are deeply woven into the social, cultural, and economic fabric of the United States.

Essential Immigrants by José Miguel Camacho (2020) Library of Congress

The history of U.S. immigration policy is not a straight line toward progress, but a series of advances and setbacks shaped by fear, hope, and political will. What remains constant is the resilience of immigrants themselves–people who have continually built, sustained, and renewed this country despite shifting rules and uneven welcome.

By understanding immigration through policy and waves of migration, we can better see how today’s debates fit into a long historical arc. And we can recognize that a more inclusive future is not only possible, it is deeply rooted in the nation’s past–and that we must work to bend the arc of history towards justice.

Naturalization ceremony, John Moore/Getty Images